| Science and Mormonism: Past, Present and Future |
|
| Home Archive FAQ FAQ: Science and Progress |
[The published version has a few minor modifications from this copy. Numbers in this text are footnote refences -- see end of article.]
In 1832, while Joseph Smith was organizing the LDS Church, Ralph Waldo Emerson wryly observed, "The Religion that is afraid of science dishonours God and commits suicide."1 163 years later, as the Church faces a new century and a new millennium, issues in the arena of science and religion are still before us. Will the LDS Church be able to retain the essence of its distinctive theology in the face of challenges from science? Will the Church's discourse on scientific topics be marked by fundamentalism, isolationism or progressivism? Will the Church be able to retain its large cadre of professional scientists? Will it be able to produce new scientists in fields germane to this discussion? Will Mormon youth be able to sort out conflicts between faith and science? What will be the likely outcome of the faith versus science issues currently being discussed in LDS literature? What entirely new issues will emerge? What is the likelihood that the Church will be able to deal with these new issues?
To find answers to these questions we first need to review the history of scientific thought in the LDS movement. This is but a brief overview. Additional information can be obtained in works by Jeffery2 and Paul.3
At a time when some other Christian faiths were still smarting from the Copernican revolution, Joseph Smith's revelations, as recorded in LDS scriptures, include frequent reference to God's vast creations -- "worlds without number."4 In another departure from traditional Christian orthodoxy, Joseph taught that God works in accordance with natural laws, rather than by transcending natural laws: "True science is a discovery of the secret, immutable and eternal laws, by which the universe is governed."5 Joseph specifically denied creation ex nihilo, teaching instead that matter is eternal.6
Other early leaders of the Church expressed similarly progressive views. Orson Pratt, who authored a number of scientific and mathematical works, advocated the Platonic view that scientific truths are known to God, and that humans merely rediscover them as their knowledge progresses.7 Orson's brother Parley P. Pratt emphasized that the LDS theology encompasses all of human knowledge, including "philosophy, astronomy, history, mathematics, geography, languages, the science of letters."8
Brigham Young, in his many speeches recorded in the Journal of Discourses, was highly positive towards the pursuit of scientific knowledge, emphasizing its beauty, practical value and divine origin. He was particularly open-minded about such issues as the age of the earth and the reliability of the Bible as a scientific text.9
In his monumental opus The Truth, the Way, the Life,10 B. H. Roberts attempted at length to harmonize modern secular and scientific knowledge with LDS theology. He included many details of the current understanding of astronomy and astrophysics, even Hubble's expanding universe and Einstein's relativity, which were both quite new at the time (1929). He acknowledged the great antiquity of the earth and the existence of pre-Adamic life, including beings resembling modern-day humans.11 He repeatedly emphasized that both science and revelation are indispensable in the search for ultimate truth. For example, with regards to the creation he taught,
"On the other hand, to limit and insist upon the whole of life and death to this side of Adam's advent to the earth, some six or eight thousand years ago, as proposed by some, is to fly in the face of the facts so indisputably brought to light by the researcher of science in modern times; ... To pay attention to and give reasonable credence to their research and findings is to link the church of God with the highest increase of human thought and effort."12
However, by about 1930 this positive approach to science began to change. One indication of the change was the dispute between B. H. Roberts, Joseph Fielding Smith and James E. Talmage over the question of the Church's official stance towards evolution.13 This dispute arose when Roberts attempted to gain permission to publish his manuscript The Truth, the Way, the Life, which was opposed by Joseph Fielding Smith due to its mention of "pre-Adamites." The matter ended inconclusively in 1931 when the First Presidency blocked publication of Roberts' book and issued a memorandum declaring, "Leave geology, biology, archaeology and anthropology, no one of which has to do with the salvation of the souls of mankind, to scientific research, while we magnify our calling in the realm of the Church."14
Some LDS figures, mainly those of scientific or intellectual backgrounds, continued to advocate a positive and open-minded approach to scientific questions. One of these was John A. Widtsoe, one of Mormonism's first academically trained scientists and an apostle for several decades. In Evidences and Reconciliations he discussed, among other things, the increasing weight of evidence for a very old earth and even presented a detailed tutorial on the technique of uranium isotope dating.15 In an article published in the Improvement Era, Widtsoe mentioned the existence of "human-like" beings before Adam, and explained that "the mystery of the creation of Adam and Eve has not yet been revealed."16
But voices such as Widtsoe's became a minority view. In 1954, after Talmage, Roberts and Widtsoe had passed away, Joseph Fielding Smith, with the encouragement of several other general authorities, published his manuscript Man: His Origin and Destiny.17 Even though the book had not received official approval from the First Presidency, it quickly gained widespread acceptance in the Church. Elder Smith's philosophies were further developed in subsequent works such as his Doctrines of Salvation.18
In these works Joseph Fielding Smith promoted a highly literal interpretation of creation scriptures. On the age of the earth, he asserted that the earth's temporal existence "is to endure for just one week, or seven days of 1,000 years each."19 He insisted that Noah's flood literally and completely immersed the earth.20 He condemned the theory of evolution as "falsehood absolutely."21 His views gained even greater circulation when they were cited in Bruce R. McConkie's popular reference Mormon Doctrine.22
During the fifties, sixties and seventies, some LDS authorities, notably David O. McKay and Hugh B. Brown, continued to emphasize a positive outlook on science and scientific issues. Pres. David O. McKay, who according to one friend privately believed in evolution, quietly assured those who inquired to his office that the Church had not taken an official position on the issue.23 Hugh B. Brown once declared, "We should be in the forefront of learning in all fields, for revelation does not come only through the prophet of God nor only directly from heaven in visions or dreams. Revelation may come in the laboratory, out of the test tube, out of the thinking mind and the inquiring soul, out of search and research and prayer and inspiration."24
But most other LDS leaders during this time emphasized the dangers of science. Mark E. Petersen raised concern about the "tenuous and fragile theory that the universe and all life came about in some mysterious spontaneous, accidental manner."25 Harold B. Lee listed "science so-called" with communism as among the sources of "untruth" challenging the world.26 Bruce R. McConkie listed Darwin's theory of evolution as one of the "seven deadly heresies."27 Ezra Taft Benson urged members to use the Book of Mormon to combat falsehoods such as "socialism, organic evolution, rationalism, humanism."28
So where do we stand today? One recent example of scientific commentary by an LDS general authority is a talk given by Boyd K. Packer at a BYU Book of Mormon symposium in 1988, where the LDS apostle declared,
"It is my conviction that to the degree the theory of evolution asserts that man is the product of an evolutionary process, the offspring of animals -- it is false! ... And, I am sorry to say, the so-called theistic evolution, the theory that God used an evolutionary process to prepare a physical body for the spirit of man, is equally false. ... How old is the earth? I do not know! But I do know that matter is eternal. How long a time has man been upon the earth? I do not know! But I do know that man did not evolve from animals. ... When confronted by evidence in the rocks below, rely on the witness of the heavens above."29
In spite of the fundamentalist tone in these excerpts, note that Elder Packer does not rule out plants and animals being the product of an evolutionary process, nor does he rule out an old earth. In this regard he is more flexible than some of the other LDS authorities who have commented on these issues during the past few decades.
There are other indications that the literalism which has dominated LDS literature during the last forty years may have peaked. In 1987, in response to numerous inquiries from readers on the subjects of fossils, the age of the earth and related issues, the editors of the Ensign asked Morris Petersen, a professor of geology at BYU, to respond. He replied with a straightforward scientific explanation of the geological record, including evidence for the earth's great antiquity and the progression of fossils from primitive to highly advanced forms.30 The fact that such an article could be published in the Church's official organ, which requires numerous official committee reviews, indicates that many LDS leaders are now comfortable with the conventional scientific picture of an old earth.
Another example is the student lesson manuals used in the Church Education System. The Old Testament manual currently used in institute classes, which was revised in 1981, takes a highly literalist approach. On the question of the age of the earth, the manual mentions the work of Velikovsky and Cook in defense of the position that the earth is only a few thousand years old. On the question of evolution, the manual includes several quotes by certain general authorities, which appear to rule out any possibility of a reconciliation with LDS doctrine, while leaving other viewpoints unmentioned. These quotes are followed by a lengthy excerpt (22 paragraphs) from the writings of a creationist.31 Similar commentary appears in several other places.
By contrast, the Old Testament manual currently used for seminary classes, which was revised in 1990, does not include any of the above material. Its only mention of evolution is in a brief question, to be considered by the student, regarding the scripture "whose seed could only bring forth the same in itself, after his kind" (Abraham 4:12). The manual concludes its discussion of the creation with the admonition, "There are still many unanswered questions about how the earth was created, but these will be answered in the Lord's own due time."32
A third indication of a softening in the prevailing views on scientific issues is given in the new Encyclopedia of Mormonism,33 which has at least semi-official status due to its sponsorship and rigorous review by the LDS Church. The article "Science and Religion," which was written by Erich R. Paul, author of Science, Religion and Mormon Cosmology,34 briefly summarizes LDS commentary on the subject, and then concludes that Latter-day Saints "look forward to a time when more complete knowledge in both areas will transcend all present perceptions of conflict." The article "Origin of Man," written by John L. Sorenson of BYU, emphasizes that there are differing views on this issue, and that the official position of the Church on man's origin is "not definitive."35
The article "Evolution," written by William Evenson of BYU, is also telling. It is just a few paragraphs long, mainly a quote of the First Presidency's neutral statement in conclusion to the 1931 Roberts-Smith-Talmage dispute. For this particular article, at least three much longer earlier drafts were reviewed and rejected by the First Presidency and other Church leaders. The First Presidency then supplied the 1931 statement from their files, and the ensuing Encyclopedia article contains little more than this short statement. Incidentally, a slightly abbreviated version of this article is now distributed to persons inquiring about evolution to the Church's headquarters. Articles on other science-related topics, such as "Abortion," "Birth Control," "Homosexuality," "Medical Practices" and "Prolonging Life" are similarly moderate and open-minded in tone, compared with discourse on these topics from decades past.36
In reviewing the history of discourse on scientific topics in LDS literature, one is struck by the large amount of space that has been devoted to a single topic: the apparent difficulty in reconciling modern biology, geology and paleontology with the LDS creation scriptures. This issue was particularly at the forefront during the period from about 1950 to 1990. Those favoring a synthesis of faith and science in this regard can draw some comfort from the articles in the Encyclopedia of Mormonism, which as mentioned above appear to be significantly more open-minded than past commentary. Also encouraging to many scientifically-minded LDS are the successful efforts of BYU faculty and administration in resisting periodic efforts to impose creationist biology at the school.37 Along this line, in 1992 the BYU Board of Trustees approved a packet of information regarding evolution to be provided for interested students at the library. It includes only a few statements by First Presidencies of the Church, omitting a large number of less conciliatory (and less authoritative) statements by other Church authorities. But these developments are shallow victories, given that most members still hold highly fundamentalist beliefs on many scientific questions. For example, over 80% of BYU students in a 1973 survey disbelieved that the creation involved evolution.38
But in any event, it may one day be lamented in LDS circles that such an inordinate amount of intellectual energy was expended during the twentieth century, by both liberals and conservatives, debating evolution and the age of the earth, while other, potentially more significant questions were ignored. For it now seems clear that the twenty-first century will bring a host of such issues to the forefront. Among them are likely to be the following:
1. The recent discovery of a gaping "ozone hole" over Antarctica, and the increasing weight of evidence that this phenomenon is due to fluorine compounds emitted by the industrialized nations, has convinced many observers that the environmental crisis must be taken seriously.39 Other looming crises include the steadily growing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, due principally to the burning of fossil fuels, the destruction of tropical rain forests, and the ongoing extinction of numerous species of plant and animal life.
Are there scriptural suggestions of these calamities? How should world governments respond? Is it prudent for the Church to become involved in these matters?
2. Hand in hand with the environmental crisis is the burgeoning world population. LDS authorities have historically discouraged the practice of birth control, although the Church's current official position on this issue is more moderate.40 In any event, the question of worldwide population control is coming explosively to the fore as it appears that the green revolution of the last few decades may have run its course, and the food supply cannot be increased much further without incalculable environmental damage.41 In China, for example, even though a draconian birth control program has reduced the country's annual population growth rate to only 1.4%, the nation grows by 17 million persons per year. Analysts project that by the year 2030, China alone could consume all the surplus grain produced in the world today, just to meet the most basic nutritional needs of its population.42
If pressure continues to build for limiting population around the world, what counsel should be given to prospective LDS parents on the size of their families? Should families in all regions of the world be given the same counsel?
3. Advances in biological science are certain to bring some significant questions of medical ethics to the fore. An example is the detection of genetic defects by DNA analysis.43 If a person is diagnosed with a genetic defect, should he/she be encouraged to have children? Which defects are serious enough to justify formal or informal restrictions? One key question here is whether or when abortion should be considered for fetuses diagnosed with serious defects. At the present time the LDS Church's official condemnation of abortion excepts cases where "a severely defective fetus cannot survive birth."44
A related issue is the possible "cloning" of living organisms, including humans.45 If this becomes possible, under what circumstances should it be done? Still another issue along this line is the commercialization of human gene therapies, as well as the creation and patenting of new species by genetic engineering.46
4. Even though there have been great advances in medical technology during the twentieth century, the pace of progress is likely to accelerate during the twenty-first. While these developments will be a great boon to the majority of mankind, they are certain to pose more and more dilemmas in prolonging the lives of terminally ill patients.47 What portion of our resources should be devoted to extending the lives of those who at best have only a few months left, as opposed to measures that will improve the quality of life for others? When does meaningful life end? When should the plug be pulled? Is euthanasia ever warranted? At the present time the LDS Church strongly condemns any form of euthanasia, although it permits artificial life support systems to be disconnected after prayerful consideration.48
5. Recently some scientists have found evidence that homosexuality is partly determined by heredity and related biological factors. The issue is being vigorously debated, however, with other scientists contesting this evidence.49 Historically the LDS Church has regarded homosexuality as a sinful lifestyle choice, although the Church's current official position is more flexible than in the past.50 If the evidence for a biological connection grows stronger, how should the Church respond? How might such developments affect the Church's policy towards same-sex marriages?
6. There are striking similarities between humans and certain animals, particularly primates, not only in terms of anatomy, but also in terms of behavior. Some animals have even been taught to use rudimentary language.51 To what extent can animals think? What really distinguishes us from the animal kingdom? How much of human behavior derives from an evolutionary past? How much of our darker nature can be overcome? Can scientific research offer any perspectives on the the eternal struggle between good and evil, and vice versa? Would such findings be acknowledged or accepted by the Church?
7. The big bang cosmological theory is the currently accepted model for the origin and evolution of the universe, although questions remain regarding its evolution since then.52 How can the notion of a finite-age universe be accommodated in LDS doctrine, which has historically taught that matter is eternal, and which has favored a steady-state cosmology? Was God the architect of the universe at the big bang? Does God exist in time and space, as a physical member of this universe, or does He exist elsewhere, beyond time and space?53 If He exists beyond time and space, how can He influence our present world?
8. Current formulations of the big bang cosmology seem to indicate that the fundamental laws of physics are exquisitely tuned to permit the existence of matter, stars and sentient beings.54 Are these facts evidence of the existence of a creator, or are there other, more prosaic explanations? Why does the universe exist at all -- why is there something and not nothing?55
9. Quantum theory, a cornerstone of modern physics, draws into question our basic notions of reality. One of its assertions, that there is a fundamental uncertainty in all physical measurements, has been solidly confirmed in a number of recent experiments.56 Furthermore, the emerging field of chaos theory tells us that many physical processes exhibit the "butterfly" property: an arbitrarily small change to present conditions can dramatically affect the future state of the system.57 Thus there appear to be fundamental limits to the ability to predict future events.
How can God's foreknowledge and the principle of prophecy be interpreted in light of these theories? Do these theories shed any light on the principle of free agency, or do they further complicate the issue?
10. As was noted above, LDS literature, especially in the nineteenth century, is replete with references to beings on other worlds. Indeed, many scientists have assumed that life must exist elsewhere, and they have investigated numerous scenarios for the detection of extra-terrestrial civilizations. Since at present the most reasonable approach appears to be the detection of microwave signals emitted by other societies, extensive astronomical searches of the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum are being conducted. Unfortunately, however, these and other scientific searches have so far turned up nothing.58
Are we alone? If not, where are these other beings? Is their biology based on carbon chemistry and DNA, like ours, or on a completely different biochemical system? How do they think, communicate and govern themselves? What are their religious beliefs? If these searches continue to come up empty-handed, how might this affect LDS theological discourse? On the other hand, if intelligent life is detected elsewhere, how might this momentous discovery be accommodated?
11. Many people imagine that the work of a mathematician largely consists of repetitive and mechanical manipulations of mathematical expressions. In fact, the process of mathematical discovery is usually a highly intuitive process, with deep abstract contemplation followed by sudden bursts of brilliant insight. Often it takes months after this flash of insight to work out all the technical details.59 How is it possible to intuitively sense the outcome of a long train of very abstract and difficult mathematical reasoning?
If, as many philosophers believe, mathematical truths exist independent of the universe, human beings and our particular physiology, how is it that our minds can discover them? Is religious revelation another manifestation of this process? If so, what can be learned about revelation and vice versa? Why does the universe appear to be governed by profound and elegant mathematical laws?60
12. A far-reaching discovery by twentieth-century mathematician Kurt Godel rules out the possibility of proving the logical consistency or completeness of formal mathematics. In other words, we can never be absolutely certain that the basic axioms utilized in mathematics are logically consistent; and even if we assume that they are, there will always exist questions which cannot be answered either affirmatively or negatively in the system.61 In the field of fundamental particle physics, we already are pressing the limits of our ability to construct (and society's willingness to pay for) experiments that can decide between competing theories. Although some scientists remain optimistic that we will soon discover a "final theory," it may be that we will be forever frustrated in this quest. In any event, we can never be absolutely certain that we completely understand the fundamental laws of the universe, or that our formulation of them is the most elegant possible.62
In other words, in the two most "certain" and "precise" of the sciences, absolute certainty appears forever out of reach, and there may be questions which can never be conclusively answered. Do these principles have analogies in theology? In particular, is God's knowledge limited in this manner? For that matter, are there limits to potential human knowledge of theological questions?
13. In recent years some scientists have boldly speculated on the possibility of immortality, proposing various scientific scenarios for how this might be achieved. Some suggest that the remarkable advances now predicted for advanced technology during the next few decades will result, among other things, in medicines that slow or even reverse the aging process. Others look forward to a time when mankind will free itself from its historic reliance on flesh, blood and brainpower.63 To what extent can doctrines such as immortality be submitted to scientific examination? Do LDS scriptures and literature offer any insight into these questions?
14. The phenomenon of human consciousness is being actively investigated by biologists, psychologists, physicists, philosophers and even computer scientists. Some scientists argue that it is fundamentally impossible to model or understand consciousness, while others dismiss such arguments and say it is only a matter of time, for instance, before computers can realistically model human thought.64 What exactly is human consciousness? What is the relationship between consciousness and the "soul" or "spirit" of LDS theology?
15. Others? If the breathtaking pace of scientific and technological advancement of the past half century is any clue, we will see new and intriguing developments in the twenty-first century that can now only be dimly imagined. For instance, there are suggestions that scientific issues will encroach more on social issues, thereby further increasing science/religion confrontations. How well will the LDS Church cope with these advances?
Conflicts between science and religion are as old as recorded history. In the sixth century B.C., a mathematician in the Pythagorean philosophical school was able to prove that the diagonal of a square is incommensurate with its sides. In our modern mathematical terminology, we would say he proved that the square root of two is an irrational number -- it cannot be expressed exactly as the ratio of two whole numbers. This discovery precipitated a major crisis for the Pythagorean school and its numerology-based religion, since one of their fundamental beliefs was the assumption that all reality could be described using whole numbers. The school reportedly drowned one of its number who publicly discussed this unsettling discovery.65
In the middle ages, growing exposure to ancient Greek and middle eastern writings caused considerable consternation among medieval Christian theologians. As a single incredible example, theologians were once disturbed at the discrepancy between the Biblical value of the ratio between the circumference and diameter of a circle, namely 3.0 (based on the dimensions of the circular pool in King Solomon's temple)66, and the more accurate values (approximately 3.14159) obtained by mathematicians in ancient Greece and medieval Europe. As late as the eighteenth century, Bible commentators were still attempting to explain away this discrepancy, using such imaginative dodges as speculating that the circular pool in Solomon's temple was really hexagonal in shape.67
The most serious challenge of the expanding corpus of scientific knowledge was to the geocentric, flat-earth cosmology that had been assumed in the Judeo-Christian world for centuries. Many Christian scholars, who noted the numerous instances in the Bible of the "four corners," the "foundations," the "pillars" and the "ends" of the earth,68 could not see how these scriptures could be reconciled with the scientific notion of a spherical earth. The last straw for these theologians was Copernicus' heliocentric cosmology, in which the earth was but one of several planets orbiting the sun. Many felt that this cosmology was so clearly incompatible with numerous Biblical scriptures69 that both the Bible and the Church would lose their authority if it prevailed. The Jesuits considered the theory more dangerous than the heresies of Luther and Calvin. The Inquisition forced Galileo to recant his arguments in support of it.70 Martin Luther, who taught that the Bible was the infallible word of God, rejected the Copernican theory because Joshua commanded the sun, not the earth, to stand still.71
In the nineteenth century, similar warnings were voiced in Catholic and Protestant circles with regards to Darwin's theory of evolution. The same is true to a lesser extent in the twentieth century regarding theories such as the big bang.
If there is a lesson to be learned from these examples, it is that scientific challenges which may seem to present insuperable difficulties for religious faith in one era are almost always seen to be compatible with faith in another. For example, Bibles today still contain the many passages that reflect the geocentric, flat-earth cosmology of antiquity, yet only the most ardent literalists lose sleep over them. It is now widely appreciated that the writers of the Bible wrote from their own world view, often in a poetic style, and no one expects that they could have anticipated every principle of modern science. Along this line, while many are still uncomfortable with the theory of evolution, others now view it as an elegant and effective mechanism utilized by God to achieve the creation. Some further argue that any attempt to read the scriptures as scientific documents, against the intent of the original writers, only obscures the deeper spiritual messages contained in them.72
How can the LDS Church best cope with the challenges of science during the next century? Some LDS may dismiss such issues, believing that the second coming of Christ will occur at or soon after the turn of the century, rendering many of the above issues moot. But others note scriptures such as "But of that day and hour knoweth no man"73 and conclude that we cannot rely on such assumptions, and that pressing issues in the arena of science and religion should not be blithely ignored.
On one hand it seems clear that if the Church adopts a strict, fundamentalist approach, with a rigid "creed" that precludes a harmony between science and religion, then it risks losing many educated members, especially in developed countries such as the U.S., Canada, Europe and Japan. Particularly at risk are young Latter-day Saints at colleges and universities, who usually lack the sophistication to see beyond superficial conflicts to the deeper issues. The tensions that many of these students now experience will only increase if they are required to choose between the increasingly dominant world of scientific knowledge and a narrowly defined religious orthodoxy.
For example, recently there has been a veritable explosion of scientific discoveries in the area of molecular biology and evolution. These include DNA computing,74 the recovery and analysis of ancient dinosaur DNA fragments,75 the resuscitation of 25-million-year-old microbial spores,76 and the tracing of modern men to a common ancestor 270,000 years ago.77 Among other things, such developments herald a new era in biological research, one that Charles Darwin in his wildest dreams might not have imagined possible: the direct study of the course of evolution (including human evolution) at the DNA level, through eons of time. Now imagine the dilemma faced by a young college student, particularly one with aspirations for a scientific career, who is bombarded by news of these exciting discoveries in the academic environment, yet hears only creationist doctrines and somber warnings of the dangers of science in his/her church environment. It is clear that many such young people will fall away.
Fortunately, as mentioned above, there are some indications that the scriptural literalism which has dominated LDS science discourse for the past half-century may be giving way to a more open-ended approach. It remains to be seen, however, whether this new approach will be more than passively advocated by Church leaders, and whether it will be accepted by rank and file members, many of whom have adopted a highly literal belief system.
On the other hand, an isolationist approach appears equally doomed to failure in a world that is destined to be increasingly pervaded by science and technology. Some separation of science and Mormonism is certainly appropriate -- surely there is no point in the Church delving into matters that are largely irrelevant to its theology or which are still highly tentative from a scientific point of view. Even in most other cases, it may well be best for the LDS Church, in its official declarations, to simply remain silent. It is certainly unwise for anyone in the Church to make seemingly "final" statements with regards to the ever-expanding world of scientific knowledge.
But if Mormonism is completely segregated from science, or if meaningful discussion of scientific topics is ruled off-limits within the Church, then it risks being viewed as sterile and irrelevant, largely disconnected from the real world. John A. Widtsoe warned about such an isolationist approach: "Scientific truth cannot be theological lie. To the sane mind, theology and philosophy must harmonize. They have the common ground of truth on which to meet."78 In a similar vein, physicist-theologian Frank J. Tipler has warned, "if religion is permanently separated from science, then it is permanently separated from humanity and all of humanity's concerns. Thus separated, it will disappear."79
Thus it appears that the Church has no choice but to steer a middle course, applying its collective gifts of intelligence and inspiration to carefully consider these matters and to ponder their significance for the LDS faith. Certainly LDS scientists must participate in this dialogue. Thus we can only hope that the current tense atmosphere will improve before we enter the next century. Fortunately, the LDS Church has one very important advantage over many other religious denominations in dealing with the challenges of science: its fundamental belief in continuing revelation, as declared in the ninth Article of Faith. One consequence of this principle is that the current Church teachings and policies at any given point in time should never be considered final, absolute, complete or infallible. Instead, they should be considered as representing the best present understanding, and possibly subject to being viewed in a different light as knowledge and understanding grows.
In ancient China, a favorite curse was "may you live during interesting times," as opposed to those serene periods of Chinese history, during stable dynasties, which were pleasant to live in but make rather boring history. Clearly we are living in "interesting" times now, and "we ain't seen nothing yet."
Yet there are distinct advantages to living in these exciting times. As can be seen from the preceding discussion, for every emerging scientific development that poses a difficult challenge to religion in general and to the LDS religion in particular, there is another that suggests genuine faith can be successfully enlarged to accommodate modern scientific discoveries, with both science and religion enriched in the process. As religious historian Karen Armstrong observed, "In our scientific age, we cannot think about God in the same way as our forebears, but the challenge of science could help us to appreciate some old truths."80
And it is undeniable that there is sublime, spiritually rewarding pleasure in discovering truths previously known only to God. Perhaps it is a good thing that He always holds some of the most fascinating and fundamental truths just beyond our reach, so that we always have something to seek for and wonder about.
It's an exciting time to be alive. Maybe within our lifetimes we will be able to answer some of the above-mentioned questions of science and religion. If so, then we will come one step closer to "knowing the mind of God."81
David H. Bailey is a computer scientist at the NASA Ames Research Center. He lives in San Jose with his wife Linda and their four daughters Cynthia, Christine, Michelle and Diane.
1 From Ralph Waldo Emerson's journal, cited in J. L. Davis, J. T. Frederick, and F. L. Mott, A Treasury of American Literature, vol. 1, Grolier, New York, 1948, pg. 703.
2 Duane Jeffery, "Seers, Savants and Evolution: The Uncomfortable Interface," Dialogue, vol. 8, no. 3 (Autumn 1974), pg. 41-75.
3 Erich R. Paul, Science, Religion, and Mormon Cosmology, University of Illinois Press, 1992. Sadly, Paul unexpectedly died of cancer in October, 1994. He will be greatly missed.
4 D&C 76:24, 88:37-39, 93:10; Moses 1:29-35; Abraham 3:9.
5 Times and Seasons, vol. 4, pg. 46 (Dec. 15, 1842).
67 Journal of Discourses, vol. 7, pg. 157 (Feb. 12, 1860).
8 Parley P. Pratt, Key to the Science of Theology, London, 1855, pg. 2.
9 Journal of Discourses, vol. 7, pg. 271 (Oct. 6, 1859); vol. 8, pg. 278 (Jun. 3, 1860); vol. 9, pg. 369 (Aug. 31, 1862); vol. 13, pg. 247-248 (Sep. 25, 1870); vol. 14, pg. 116 (May 14, 1871); vol. 15, pg. 127 (Aug. 11, 1872).
10 Brigham H. Roberts, The Truth, the Way, the Life: An Elementary Treatise on Theology, 1930; published by Smith Research Associates (SRA), SLC, 1994; also published by FARMS.
11 Roberts, 1930 (SRA), p.260-274, 339-364.
12 Roberts, 1930 (SRA), pg. 363-364.
13 Richard Sherlock, "We Can See No Advantage to a Continuation of the Discussion: The Roberts/Smith/Talmage Affair," Dialogue, vol. 13, no. 3 (Fall 1980), pg. 63-78.
14 Sherlock, 1980, pg. 71.
15 John A. Widtsoe, Evidences and Reconciliations, Bookcraft, SLC, 1951, pg. 149.
16 John A. Widtsoe, "Were There Pre-Adamites?" Improvement Era, vol. 51, no. 5 (May 1948), pg. 205.
17 Joseph Fielding Smith, Man: His Origin and Destiny, Deseret Book, SLC, 1954.
18 Joseph Fielding Smith, Doctrines of Salvation, Bookcraft, SLC, 1956.
19 ibid, vol. 1, pg. 80.
20 Smith, 1954, pg. 414-436.
21 Smith, 1956, vol. 1, pg. 140.
22 Bruce R. McConkie, Mormon Doctrine, second edition, Bookcraft, SLC, 1966, pg. 256.
23 Sterling M. McMurrin and L. Jackson Newell, "McMurrin's Heresies, History, and Humor," Sunstone, vol. 18, no. 1 (April 1995), pg. 55-62; William L. Stokes, "An Official Position," Dialogue, vol. 12, no. 3 (Winter 1979), pg. 90-92; David O. McKay, "A Message for LDS College Youth," BYU Extension Publications, Provo, Oct. 10, 1952, pg. 6-7; Conference Report, April 1968, pg. 92; Gospel Ideals, Improvement Era Publications, SLC, 1953, pg. 49.
24 Edwin B. Firmage, The Memoirs of Hugh B. Brown: An Abundant Life, Signature Books, SLC, 1988, pg. 139.
25 Mark E. Petersen, "Creator and Savior," Ensign, May 1983, pg. 63-65.
26 Harold B. Lee, Conference Report, April 1964, pg. 21-25; also, Oct. 1968, pg. 59-62.
27 Bruce R. McConkie, "The Seven Deadly Heresies," BYU Fireside, June 1, 1980, transcript.
28 Ezra Taft Benson, The Teachings of Ezra Taft Benson, Bookcraft, SLC, 1988, pg. 60; Benson did acknowledge the scientific evidence for evolution -- see Steve Benson, "Ezra Taft Benson: A Grandson's Remembrance," Sunstone, vol. 17, no. 3 (Dec. 1994), pg. 29-37.
29 Boyd K. Packer, "The Law and the Light," in Nyman and Tate, To Learn With Joy, BYU, 1990. This published copy of the 1988 speech was prefaced with a strongly worded disclaimer.
30 Morris Petersen, "Fossils and Scripture," Ensign, Sep. 1987, pg. 28.
31 Old Testament: Genesis -- 2 Samuel Student Manual, LDS, 1981, pg. 28-29, 33-36.
32 Seminary Old Testament Student Manual, LDS, 1990, pg. 18-19.
33 Daniel H. Ludlow, ed., The Encyclopedia of Mormonism, Macmillan, New York, 1992.
34 Paul, 1992.
35 "Science and Religion," vol. 3, pg. 1270-1272; "Origin of Man," vol. 3, pg. 1053-1054.
36 "Evolution," vol. 2, pg. 478; "Abortion," vol. 1, pg. 7; "Birth Control," vol. 1, pg. 116-117; "Homosexuality," vol. 2, pg. 655-656; "Medical Practices," vol. 2, pg. 875; "Prolonging Life," vol. 3, pg. 1159-1160.
37 Gary J. Bergera and Ronald Priddis, Brigham Young University: A House of Faith, Signature Books, SLC, 1985, pg. 131-171.
38 Armand L. Mauss, The Angel and the Beehive, University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1994, pg. 179. According to BYU zoologist Duane Jeffery, BYU students today are at least as literalist in their beliefs on evolution than in 1973.
39 Owen B. Toon and Richard P. Turco, "Polar Stratospheric Clouds and Ozone Depletion," Scientific American, vol. 264, no. 6 (June 1991), pg. 68-75; Sasha Nemecek, "Holes in Ozone Science," Scientific American, vol. 272, no. 1 (Jan. 1995), pg. 26-27.
40 Lester E. Bush, Jr., Health and Medicine Among the Later-day Saints, Crossroad, NY, 1993, pg. 152-159; Smith, 1956, vol. 2, pg. 87; Ezra Taft Benson, Conference Report, April 1969, pg. 10-15; Mark E. Petersen, The Way to Peace, Bookcraft, SLC, 1969, pg. 266; Ludlow, 1992, vol. 1, pg. 116-117.
41 John Bongaarts, "Can the Growing Human Population Feed Itself?" Scientific American, vol. 270, no. 3 (March 1994), pg. 36-43.
42 Eugene Linden, "Showdown in Cairo," Time, vol. 144, no. 10 (Sept. 4, 1994), pg. 52-53.
43 Philip Elmer-Dewitt, "The Genetic Revolution," Time, vol. 143, no. 3 (Jan. 17, 1994), pg. 46-57.
44 Bush, 1993, pg. 159-167; Ludlow, 1992, vol. 1, pg. 7.
45 Philip Elmer-Dewitt, "Cloning: Where Do We Draw the Line," Time, vol. 142, no. 19 (Nov. 8, 1993), pg. 64-67.
46 Richard Stone, "Religious Leaders Oppose Patenting Genes and Animals," Science, vol. 268 (May 26, 1995), pg. 1126; Kenneth L. Woodward, "Thou Shalt Not Patent!" Newsweek (May 29, 1995), pg. 68-69.
47 C. Everett Koop and Timothy Johnson, Let's Talk -- An Honest Conversation on Critical Issues, Zonderman Press, Grand Rapids, MI, 1992, pg. 39-60.
48 Bush, 1993, pg. 36-39; Ludlow, 1992, vol. 3, pg. 1159-1160.
49 Simon LeVay and Dean H. Hamer, "Evidence for a Biological Influence in Male Homosexuality," Scientific American, vol. 270, no. 5 (June 1994), pg. 44-49; William Byne, "The Biological Evidence Challenged," Scientific American, vol. 270, no. 5 (June 1994), pg. 50-55; Larry Thompson, "Search for a Gay Gene," Time, vol. 145, no. 24 (June 12, 1995), pg. 60-61.
50 Bush, 1993, pg. 173-178; Benson, 1988, pg. 280; Spencer W. Kimball, The Miracle of Forgiveness, Bookcraft, SLC, 1969, pg. 78-89; Ludlow, 1992, vol. 2, pg. 655-656.
51 Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan, Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors, Random House, New York, 1992; Eugene Winden, "Can Animals Think?," Time, vol. 141, no. 12 (Mar. 22, 1993), pg. 54-63.
52 Corey S. Powell, "The Golden Age of Cosmology," Scientific American, vol. 267, no. 1 (July 1992), pg. 17-22; R. Cowen, "Hubble Telescope Eyes a Younger Universe," Science News, vol. 146, no. 18 (Oct. 29, 1994), pg. 278; Michael D. Lemonick and J. Madeleine Nash, "Unraveling Universe," Time, vol. 145, no. 9 (Mar. 6, 1995), pg. 77-84.
53 Robert Wright, "Science, God and Man," Time, vol. 140, no. 26 (Dec. 28, 1992), pg. 38-44; Paul Davies, God and the New Physics, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1983.
54 Paul Davies, The Accidental Universe, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1982; John D. Barrow and Frank J. Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, Oxford University Press, New York, 1986; Steven Weinberg, "Life in the Universe," Scientific American, vol. 271, no. 4 (Oct. 1994), pg. 44-49.
55 Andrei Linde, "The Self-Reproducing Inflationary Universe," Scientific American, vol. 271, no. 5 (Nov. 1994), pg. 48-55; Paul Davies, The Mind of God, Touchstone, New York, 1992, pg. 39-72, 161-193; Steven Hawking, A Brief History of Time, Doubleday, New York, 1988.
56 Abner Shimony, "The Reality of the Quantum World," Scientific American, vol. 258, no. 1 (Jan. 1988), pg. 46-53.
57 James Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science, Viking Penguin, New York, 1987.
58 Barrow and Tipler, 1986, pg. 576-612; Paul, 1992, pg. 193-227; Carl Sagan, "The Search for Extraterrestrial Life," Scientific American, vol. 271, no. 4 (Oct. 1994), pg. 92-99; Carl Sagan, Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space, Random House, NY, 1994, pg. 351-365.
59 John D. Barrow, Pi in the Sky: Counting, Thinking and Being, Little Brown and Company, New York, 1992; Robert Kanigel, The Man Who Knew Infinity, Washington Square Press, New York, 1992; Barry Cipra, "Princeton Mathematician Looks Back on Fermat Proof," Science, vol. 268 (May 26, 1995), pg. 1133-1134.
60 Davies, 1992, pg. 140-160.
61 Barrow, 1992; Douglas R. Hofstadter, Godel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid, Random House, New York, 1979.
62 Steven Weinberg, Dreams of a Final Theory, Vintage Books, New York, 1994; John Horgan, "Particle Metaphysics," Scientific American, vol. 270, no. 2 (Feb. 1994), pg. 96-106; David Lindley, The End of Physics, Basic Books, New York, 1993; Davies, 1992.
63 K. Eric Drexler, Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology, Doubleday, New York, 1990; Marvin Minsky, "Will Robots Inherit the Earth?" Scientific American, vol. 271, no. 4 (Oct. 1994), pg. 108-113; Frank J. Tipler, The Physics of Immortality, Doubleday, New York, 1994.
64 Barrow, 1992; Hofstadter, 1979; Minsky, 1994; Tipler, 1994; John Horgan, "Can Science Explain Consciousness?" Scientific American, vol. 271, no. 1 (July 1994), pg. 88-94.
65 Bertrand Russell, Wisdom of the West, Crescent Books, London, 1959, pg. 22; D. W. Hamlyn, A History of Western Philosophy, Viking Penguin, NY, 1987, pg. 18-19.
66 1 Kings 7:23; 2 Chronicles 4:2.
67 Petr Beckmann, A History of Pi, St. Martin's Press, NY, 1971, pg. 75-76. Beckmann references a seven-volume history of mathematics, in German, by Jerome Tropfke, published in 1923. Tropfke in turn quotes some original eighteenth century sources.
68 Gen. 1:7; 1 Sam. 2:8; 2 Sam. 22:16; Job 28:24; 38:4; Psa. 75:3; 102:25; 135:7; Isa. 11:12; 48:13; Jer. 10:13; 31:37; Eze. 10:1; Zech. 9:10, Heb. 1:10; Rev. 7:1; and others.
69 Josh. 10:12-13; Job 9:6-7; Psa. 93:1; 104:5; 104:19; Eccl. 1:5; Isa. 38:7-8; Amos 8:9 and others.
70 Will and Ariel Durant, The Story of Civilization, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1961, vol. 7, pg. 600-612.
71 Josh. 10:12-13; Durant, 1961, vol. 6, pg. 858.
72 Keith E. Norman, "Adam's Navel," Dialogue, vol. 21, no. 2 (Summer 1988), pg. 81-97; Karen Armstrong, A History of God, Knopf, New York, 1993, pg. 395; John S. Spong, Rescuing the Bible from Fundamentalism, New York, 1991, pg. 25-36.
73 Matt. 24:36.
74 Leonard M. Adleman, "Molecular Computation of Solutions to Combinatorial Problems," Science, vol. 266 (Nov. 11, 1994), pg. 1021-1023; Robert Pool, "A Boom in Plans for DNA Computing, Science, vol. 268 (Apr. 28, 1995), pg. 498-499.
75 Richard Monastersky, "Dinosaur DNA: Is the Race Finally Over?" Science News, vol. 146 (Nov. 19, 1994), pg. 324; Ann Gibbons, "Possible Dino DNA Find Is Greeted with Skepticism," Science, vol. 266 (Nov. 18, 1994), pg. 1159. The researcher here is Scott Woodward of BYU.
76 Raul J. Cano and Monica K. Borucki, "Revival and Identification of Bacterial Spores in 25- to 40-Million-Year-Old Dominican Amber, Science, vol. 268 (May 19, 1995), pg. 1060-1064; J. Madeline Nash, "Return of the Living Dead?" Time, vol. 145, no. 22 (May 29, 1995), pg. 55-56.
77 Svante Paabo, "The Y Chromosome and the Origin of All of Us (Men)," Science, vol. 268 (May 26, 1995), pg. 1141-1142; Robert L. Dorit, Hiroshi Akashi and Walter Gilbert, "Absence of Polymorphism at the ZFY Locus on the Human Y Chromosome," Science, vol. 268 (May 26, 1995), pg. 1183-1185.
78 John A. Widtsoe, Joseph Smith As Scientist, Bookcraft, SLC, 1964, pg. 156; originally published in 1908.
79 Tipler, 1994, pg. 332.
80 Armstrong, pg. 395.
81 Hawking, 1988, pg., 175; Davies, 1992.